To grasp an understanding of Nationalism in modern European societies, we should study the historical development of Europe from the 14th century period of discovery and European expansionism, to the present day anxieties within the European Union. The prospect of federalism and fears for loss of national sovereignty in the European Union present cause for great concern among its member states.
Xenophobia, bigotry and the rise of fascist groups have had a devastating effect upon modern Europe. Even the present European Parliament has 'extreme nationalist' representation among its MEPs. Extreme racist attitudes can develop from acceptable and rational nationalist leanings, which are usually described in such terms as patriotism and national pride.
The idea of nation, is a group of people who consider themselves a community bound by history, culture and common ancestry. (Riggs 1985.) A comprehensive account for nationalism must also consider psychology, anthropology, history and the causes of tribal-like behaviour, such as sexual orientation and egotism. Nationalism is a form of behaviour and an ideology that requires conscious awareness of nationality, which is reinforced by the official recognition of the nation state. Nationality is also associated with an established common language, although nation states are often multilingual, examples being Belgium and Switzerland.
The following is a brief account, with some historic detail, of the formation of nationhood in Europe, the definition of nationalism and the importance of culture to the idea of nation. In conclusion there follows an explanation of the conditions which encourage and fuel nationalism alongside my aspirations for European harmony in the future.
The Roman Empire spread only as far as the practical limits of climatic and agricultural expediency. Therefore drawing borders along the northern European areas, leaving Germany, Scotland, Nordic and Scandinavian areas of northern Europe, outside the boundary of Roman influence, led to differences of language, with areas under Roman acquisition having a Latin persuasion.
European borders were drawn between the Moorish Empire and the non-Islamic peoples in the 15th century. Isabella I 'the Catholic' 1451-1504, was Queen of Castile from 1474. After the death of her brother Henry IV, her subsequent marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469 enabled her to unite the crowns of the two Christian states in the Moorish-held Spanish peninsula. (Her youngest daughter was Catherine of Aragon, first wife of Henry VIII of England). Typically, she introduced the Inquisition into Castile, expelled the Jews and the Moors, and gave financial encouragement to Columbus. The consequent religious crusades against Islam established religious borders. The European period of expansionism in the 15th Century established European identity through imperial acquisition of new lands, driven and funded by evangelism. The Catholic Church had a mission to drive the Moors from Eurasia and spread their religion to all people. (Hutchinson's Encyclopaedia 1997.) Together with imperialist rulers they plundered and exploited, appropriating great amounts of wealth. Catholicism established the moral and cultural structure for economic exploitation. Getting people to achieve this expansionism required a focus of identity to motivate them. The creation of nation can focus immense pride and loyalty, therefore being the ideal motivating catalyst. National identity, being a powerful tool can become uncontrollable with devastating results. (Hobsbawm 1992.)
Natural borders, oceans, rivers, mountain ranges and valleys, create defensible frontiers, which instil homogeneity and consequently the conditions for national identity. Islands are an obvious example but very often undergo nationalist conflict within their borders. Conflict within natural boundaries sometimes leads to the construction of man-made borders such as Hadrian's wall, dividing Scotland from England, and across extensive land locked areas such as The Great Wall of China.
Politically, a nationalist movement is one that consciously aims to unify a nation, create a state, or liberate it from foreign or imperialistic rule and / or influence. (Kellas 1991.) Nationalist political movements can become extreme and intolerant of people of other nationalities. Nationalist movements became a potent factor in European politics during the early 19th century, culminating with the second world war. Since 1900 nationalism has become a strong force in Asia and Africa and in the late 1980s revived strongly in Eastern Europe. (Kedourie 1971.)
Stimulated by the French Revolution, nationalist movements arose in the 19th century to favour national unification in Germany and Italy and national independence in Ireland, Italy, Belgium, Hungary, Bohemia, Poland, Finland, and the Balkan states. (Hutchinson's Encyclopaedia 1997.) Revival of interest in the national language, history, traditions, and culture has accompanied and influenced most political movements.
In political terms, nationalism can be pursued as an ideology that stresses the superiority of a nation and its inhabitants compared with other nations and peoples. Most countries enjoy, and wish to demonstrate, national pride but carried to the extreme, nationalism can produce dangerous regimes and political systems, such as Nazi Germany in the 1930s.
In the second half of the 20th century, a national literary and political movement has developed in Scotland and Wales. (The present Labour government has held a referendum in Scotland on devolution of political power from Westminster to an assembly in Scotland and proposes to hold a similar referendum for Wales. Scotland voted narrowly in favour of the devolution proposals). The Scottish Nationalist Declaration of 1320 was a result of the ruling elite endeavouring to protect their property and privilege, not a working class struggle from oppression as suggested by ideologically inspired writers such as Marx. The Scottish people are made up of a variety of ethnic groups i.e. Picts, Britons, Norse and Angles, as well as Scots. So how did the idea of Scottish nationality arise? The Scots endured a history of tribal conflict across Europe eventually to acquire their presently held territory to the north of England. They have an unbroken bloodline of Monarchy, having had one hundred and thirteen kings reign over them. This historic reinforcement of ethnic bonding strengthened the ideology of Scottish nationality over the other ethnic groups, therefore establishing themselves as the dominant group. (Ignatieff 1993.)
A definition of nation must allow for the idea of cultural nationality and the political concept of 'the nation,' without which the nationalist movements would not have developed in modern Europe. The idea of nation can be divided into political nation states and cultural nations. The two are generally combined but the question is, does cultural identity develop in the Nation State or is collective cultural identity the catalyst for passage to nationality ? (Blaut 1987.)
Culture can change or be relearned in a nation as it has in Germany for example. Germany's Cultural Revolution since the Second World War appears to be an apologia for fanatical Nazi nationalism and exploitation of the German identity. Turning away from traditional German culture supplanting Beethoven, Bach, Goethe, Schiller and Wagner to favour Anglo American pop culture, fashion, English farce and music hall comedy, although some older Deutsche Volk seem to have difficulty in appreciating irony and satire.
The younger generations are learning their culture through a technology driven media and English language is the principal key to a common international identity. (Wyatt [BBC] 1997.) Ethnic bonding requires recognition of a common language and culture, as well as kinship. There is controversy over what degree genetics contributes to ethnic bonding, if at all. However, there is strong evidence that empirical learning through culture and politics has a far greater effect on ethnic bonding than biological parenting.
Conclusion
Sociologically, according to Gellner [1983], the cause of nationalism is the transition from a traditional to a technologically advanced society. Whereas change creates the conditions in which nationalism can flourish and may be a contributory factor, causation is more complex when considering nationalism. An economically stable society with a democratically structured political system and equitable distribution of resources should withstand technological change without recourse to nationalist conflict.
Nationalism is therefore in my opinion partly natural; partly imposed, part political; part culture, it is a product of historical struggles, but also a phenomenon of modernity. Gellner, standing back from myth and ideology, suggests that nationalism seeks to attain and defend the objective of national integrity. This theory suggests an initial element of oppression being present and a collective reaction against a foreign aggressor. Nationalism thrives on economic discontent, especially where there is a cultural division of labour, as was the case in 1930s Germany. The reparations after the 1914 - 1918 war left Germany in a poor economic position, which gave opportunity to Hitler's Nazi party to gain popularity by blaming the German misfortunes entirely on the Jewish community. More recent evidence of this has been the 'ethnic cleansing' in Bosnia Herzegovina, formerly Yugoslavia, between the Serbian nationalists and the Muslim community. Such atrocities could be prevented if all nations had a greater sense of international responsibility.
A possible solution to the negativity of nationalism in Europe could be the economic and political union of Europe. If the member states of the European Union can put aside their concerns of national sovereignty and fear of federalism, economic and political security could be attained in a United European Union. The European Union's policy of subsidiarity would bring democratic autonomy to regions, districts and even works councils. The probability of economic decline in any one area would be minimised; small, local, self-governing areas will nurture a greater diversity of cultural expression whilst under the protective umbrella of an influential economic / political trading block, the European Union. If the EU is successful it will be because nation states have supported the greater good of international co-operation, but the main cause of failure will be divisive, egotistical nationalism, bringing economic decline which will in turn reinforce nationalist resentment and lead to conflict. Although European political and monetary union could fail, the alternatives would be equally disastrous; therefore, further integration must proceed with considered, but assured vigour, showing confidence in its ultimate success. This is the key to its future prosperity and to the co-existence of a flourishing diversity of cultures, without the destructive negativity of reactionary nationalism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Blaut James M 1987 The National Question Zed Books
Gellner Ernest 1983 Nations and Nationalism Blackmore
Hobsbawm Eric 1992 Nations & Nationalism Since 1780 Camb. Uni. Press
Hutchinson's Encyclopaedia 06 November 1997 Internet Download
Ignatieff Michael 1993 Blood Belongings (Journeys to new nationalism) BBC Books
Kellas James G 1994 The Politics of Nationalism & Ethnicity Macmillan Press
Kedourie Elie 1971 Nationalism Hutchinson
Riggs Fred W 1985 Ethnicity University of Hawaii
Wyatt Carolyn 1997 The Changing Face of Germany 5 Nov./ BBC Radio 4